Data
Every coefficient the site runs on, in one sortable table. OWID fetch date: 2026-07-24. File hash: demo-static-seed. Cost data uses Lazard 2026 only; oil, hydro, and biomass carry no comparable cost figure.
8 sources · sort by any column
| Coal | 24.6 24.6–224 | 95% | 820 740–910 | 9 6–18 | $118 68–166 | $347 | Our World in Data |
| Oil | 18.4 18.4–52 | 94% | 720 650–880 | 7 4–13 | — | $259 | Our World in Data |
| Biomass | 4.6 4.6–12 | 86% | 230 130–420 | 240 120–420 | — | $65 | Our World in Data |
| Gas | 2.8 2.8–8.5 | 90% | 490 410–650 | 4 2–8 | $78 45–108 | $39 | Our World in Data |
| Hydro | 1.3 0.04–1.6 | 2% | 24 1–220 | 33 4–200 | — | $18 | Our World in Data |
| Wind | 0.04 0.02–0.08 | 25% | 11 7–56 | 62 6.2–62 | $50 27–73 | $0.56 | Our World in Data |
| Nuclear | 0.03 0.03–0.07 | 70% | 12 3.7–110 | 0.47 0.3–1.9 | $215 175–255 | $0.42 | Our World in Data |
| Solar | 0.02 0.01–0.06 | 25% | 48 18–180 | 16 5–40 | $46 29–92 | $0.28 | Our World in Data |
Central estimate shown large, the low–high band beneath. Mortality cost values each source's deaths at the central value of a statistical life. Land mixes two methodologies; see Methodology.
Full source, as stored
The raw JSON behind the table and the rest of the site, for full transparency and copy-paste.
Source coefficients
[
{
"slug": "coal",
"label": "Coal",
"description": "Electricity from hard coal, lignite, and similar solid fuels.",
"deathRate": {
"low": 24.6,
"central": 24.6,
"high": 224,
"unit": "deaths/TWh",
"source": "owid-safest-sources",
"modeledShare": 0.95,
"note": "Fossil-fuel rates are dominated by modeled air-pollution deaths; the high bound reflects global-average caution.",
"howItKills": "Almost entirely through chronic air pollution — fine particulates, sulphur and nitrogen oxides — inhaled across the whole downwind population over years. Mining and transport accidents are real but a small fraction of the total.",
"whatDominates": "Long-term particulate exposure across the public. Chronic effects account for roughly 88–99% of the total; acute accidents are the remainder."
},
"lifecycleCO2": {
"low": 740,
"central": 820,
"high": 910,
"unit": "gCO2eq/kWh",
"source": "ipcc-ar5-a3"
},
"landUse": {
"low": 6,
"central": 9,
"high": 18,
"unit": "m2/MWh/yr",
"source": "unece-2021"
},
"lcoe": {
"low": 68,
"central": 118,
"high": 166,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe"
}
},
{
"slug": "oil",
"label": "Oil",
"description": "Electricity from petroleum liquids, commonly used for peaking or isolated grids.",
"deathRate": {
"low": 18.4,
"central": 18.4,
"high": 52,
"unit": "deaths/TWh",
"source": "owid-safest-sources",
"modeledShare": 0.94,
"highBoundDerived": true,
"highBoundNote": "The 18.4 low bound is OWID's published figure. The upper bound is a site-derived caution estimate scaling OWID's reasoning that newer research suggests higher impacts; it is not itself a published number.",
"howItKills": "Combustion air pollution, much like coal — particulates and sulphur oxides from burning heavy petroleum liquids, often in older peaking plants — plus accidents in extraction, refining, and transport.",
"whatDominates": "Modeled air-pollution deaths dominate. Oil-fired generation is now rare, so the estimate leans on the same combustion-pollution mechanism as coal."
},
"lifecycleCO2": {
"low": 650,
"central": 720,
"high": 880,
"unit": "gCO2eq/kWh",
"source": "ipcc-ar5-a3"
},
"landUse": {
"low": 4,
"central": 7,
"high": 13,
"unit": "m2/MWh/yr",
"source": "unece-2021"
},
"lcoe": {
"low": null,
"central": null,
"high": null,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe",
"status": "NO_COMPARABLE_DATA",
"note": "Lazard 2026 does not publish a comparable LCOE figure for this top-level source in the site taxonomy."
}
},
{
"slug": "gas",
"label": "Gas",
"description": "Electricity from natural gas turbines and combined-cycle plants.",
"deathRate": {
"low": 2.8,
"central": 2.8,
"high": 8.5,
"unit": "deaths/TWh",
"source": "owid-safest-sources",
"modeledShare": 0.9,
"highBoundDerived": true,
"highBoundNote": "The 2.8 low bound is OWID's published figure. The upper bound is a site-derived caution estimate scaling OWID's reasoning that newer research suggests higher impacts; it is not itself a published number.",
"howItKills": "Air pollution from combustion — lower than coal or oil per unit of electricity — plus accidents in gas extraction and pipelines and occasional plant explosions.",
"whatDominates": "Modeled combustion-pollution deaths dominate; accidents are a small share. Upstream methane leakage is a climate concern but not counted here as a death mechanism."
},
"lifecycleCO2": {
"low": 410,
"central": 490,
"high": 650,
"unit": "gCO2eq/kWh",
"source": "ipcc-ar5-a3"
},
"landUse": {
"low": 2,
"central": 4,
"high": 8,
"unit": "m2/MWh/yr",
"source": "unece-2021"
},
"lcoe": {
"low": 45,
"central": 78,
"high": 108,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe"
}
},
{
"slug": "biomass",
"label": "Biomass",
"description": "Electricity from burned plant and waste material.",
"deathRate": {
"low": 4.6,
"central": 4.6,
"high": 12,
"unit": "deaths/TWh",
"source": "owid-safest-sources",
"modeledShare": 0.86,
"highBoundDerived": true,
"highBoundNote": "The 4.6 low bound is OWID's published figure. The upper bound is a site-derived caution estimate scaling OWID's reasoning that newer research suggests higher impacts; it is not itself a published number.",
"howItKills": "Burning plant and waste material produces particulate smoke similar to other combustion sources, inhaled by nearby populations, plus harvesting and supply-chain accidents.",
"whatDominates": "Modeled particulate-exposure deaths from combustion dominate. How clean the feedstock and stack controls are moves this figure a lot."
},
"lifecycleCO2": {
"low": 130,
"central": 230,
"high": 420,
"unit": "gCO2eq/kWh",
"source": "ipcc-ar5-a3"
},
"landUse": {
"low": 120,
"central": 240,
"high": 420,
"unit": "m2/MWh/yr",
"source": "unece-2021"
},
"lcoe": {
"low": null,
"central": null,
"high": null,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe",
"status": "NO_COMPARABLE_DATA",
"note": "Lazard 2026 does not publish a comparable LCOE figure for this top-level source in the site taxonomy."
}
},
{
"slug": "hydro",
"label": "Hydro",
"description": "Electricity from dams, reservoirs, and flowing water.",
"deathRate": {
"low": 0.04,
"central": 1.3,
"high": 1.6,
"unit": "deaths/TWh",
"source": "owid-safest-sources",
"modeledShare": 0.02,
"note": "Global figure is dominated by the 1975 Banqiao Dam failure; excluding it gives about 0.04 deaths/TWh.",
"howItKills": "Overwhelmingly through catastrophic dam-failure events, which are rare but can kill on a massive scale. Routine operation is one of the safest sources there is.",
"whatDominates": "A single event — the 1975 Banqiao Dam failure in China — dominates the global average. Excluding it, hydro sits near 0.04 deaths/TWh, comparable to wind and solar."
},
"lifecycleCO2": {
"low": 1,
"central": 24,
"high": 220,
"unit": "gCO2eq/kWh",
"source": "ipcc-ar5-a3"
},
"landUse": {
"low": 4,
"central": 33,
"high": 200,
"unit": "m2/MWh/yr",
"source": "unece-2021"
},
"lcoe": {
"low": null,
"central": null,
"high": null,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe",
"status": "NO_COMPARABLE_DATA",
"note": "Lazard 2026 does not publish a comparable LCOE figure for this top-level source in the site taxonomy."
}
},
{
"slug": "nuclear",
"label": "Nuclear",
"description": "Electricity from fission reactors and their fuel cycle.",
"deathRate": {
"low": 0.03,
"central": 0.03,
"high": 0.07,
"unit": "deaths/TWh",
"source": "owid-safest-sources",
"modeledShare": 0.7,
"note": "Long-term cancer deaths are modeled with the linear no-threshold assumption.",
"howItKills": "Mostly through modeled long-term cancer deaths projected from low-dose radiation exposure — not through reactor accidents. The counted fatalities of Chernobyl and Fukushima are a small part of the number.",
"whatDominates": "Modeled cancer projections under the linear no-threshold (LNT) model dominate, not acute accident deaths. LNT is contested, and dropping it would push the rate lower still."
},
"lifecycleCO2": {
"low": 3.7,
"central": 12,
"high": 110,
"unit": "gCO2eq/kWh",
"source": "ipcc-ar5-a3"
},
"landUse": {
"low": 0.3,
"central": 0.47,
"high": 1.9,
"unit": "km2/TWh/yr",
"source": "vanzalk-behrens-2018",
"note": "Direct plant footprint. Van Zalk & Behrens (2018) give a nuclear median of about 0.47 km²/TWh/yr (240.8 We/m²)."
},
"lcoe": {
"low": 175,
"central": 215,
"high": 255,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe",
"note": "Lazard LCOE+ 2026 (v19.0) US nuclear, roughly $175–$255/MWh, average about $215."
}
},
{
"slug": "wind",
"label": "Wind",
"description": "Electricity from onshore and offshore wind turbines.",
"deathRate": {
"low": 0.02,
"central": 0.04,
"high": 0.08,
"unit": "deaths/TWh",
"source": "owid-safest-sources",
"modeledShare": 0.25,
"howItKills": "Almost entirely through occupational accidents during construction and maintenance — falls from turbine height and road transport incidents. There is no combustion and no pollution term.",
"whatDominates": "Installation and maintenance accidents dominate. Manufacturing supply-chain risk is a smaller modeled contribution."
},
"lifecycleCO2": {
"low": 7,
"central": 11,
"high": 56,
"unit": "gCO2eq/kWh",
"source": "ipcc-ar5-a3"
},
"landUse": {
"low": 6.2,
"central": 62,
"high": 62,
"unit": "km2/TWh/yr",
"source": "vanzalk-behrens-2018",
"note": "Central is total wind-farm area including turbine spacing; direct land occupation is about 10% of that area and is stored as the low figure."
},
"lcoe": {
"low": 27,
"central": 50,
"high": 73,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe"
},
"firmingCost": {
"low": 11,
"central": 25,
"high": 62,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe",
"note": "Illustrative Lazard 2026 firming-cost adder based on grid-operator ELCC and Net CONE frameworks."
}
},
{
"slug": "solar",
"label": "Solar",
"description": "Electricity from photovoltaic panels and solar thermal plants.",
"deathRate": {
"low": 0.01,
"central": 0.02,
"high": 0.06,
"unit": "deaths/TWh",
"source": "owid-safest-sources",
"modeledShare": 0.25,
"howItKills": "Mainly through falls during rooftop installation and maintenance, plus accidents in panel manufacturing and transport. Like wind, there is no combustion and no pollution term.",
"whatDominates": "Occupational accidents — installation falls above all — dominate. Manufacturing risk is a smaller modeled share."
},
"lifecycleCO2": {
"low": 18,
"central": 48,
"high": 180,
"unit": "gCO2eq/kWh",
"source": "ipcc-ar5-a3"
},
"landUse": {
"low": 5,
"central": 16,
"high": 40,
"unit": "m2/MWh/yr",
"source": "unece-2021"
},
"lcoe": {
"low": 29,
"central": 46,
"high": 92,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe"
},
"firmingCost": {
"low": 8,
"central": 22,
"high": 37,
"unit": "USD/MWh",
"source": "lazard-lcoe",
"note": "Illustrative Lazard 2026 firming-cost adder based on grid-operator ELCC and Net CONE frameworks."
}
}
]Country mix
[
{
"iso": "USA",
"country": "United States",
"year": 2024,
"population": 341000000,
"demandTwh": 4300,
"pollutionControls": "stringent",
"mix": {
"coal": 16,
"oil": 1,
"gas": 43,
"biomass": 1,
"hydro": 6,
"nuclear": 18,
"wind": 10,
"solar": 5
}
},
{
"iso": "FRA",
"country": "France",
"year": 2024,
"population": 68000000,
"demandTwh": 465,
"pollutionControls": "stringent",
"mix": {
"coal": 1,
"oil": 1,
"gas": 6,
"biomass": 2,
"hydro": 12,
"nuclear": 65,
"wind": 9,
"solar": 4
}
},
{
"iso": "CHN",
"country": "China",
"year": 2024,
"population": 1410000000,
"demandTwh": 9450,
"pollutionControls": "moderate",
"mix": {
"coal": 58,
"oil": 1,
"gas": 3,
"biomass": 2,
"hydro": 14,
"nuclear": 5,
"wind": 10,
"solar": 7
}
},
{
"iso": "NOR",
"country": "Norway",
"year": 2024,
"population": 5500000,
"demandTwh": 140,
"pollutionControls": "stringent",
"mix": {
"coal": 0,
"oil": 0,
"gas": 1,
"biomass": 1,
"hydro": 88,
"nuclear": 0,
"wind": 9,
"solar": 1
}
},
{
"iso": "WLD",
"country": "World",
"year": 2024,
"population": 8100000000,
"demandTwh": 30000,
"pollutionControls": "moderate",
"aggregate": true,
"mix": {
"coal": 35,
"oil": 3,
"gas": 23,
"biomass": 2,
"hydro": 15,
"nuclear": 9,
"wind": 8,
"solar": 5
}
}
]Profiles
[
{
"iso": "CHN",
"event": "1975 Banqiao Dam failure",
"energyRelated": true,
"summary": "Dam failures after extreme rainfall caused a large contested death toll.",
"electrocutionDeathsPer100k": 0.4
},
{
"iso": "USA",
"event": "Kansas City Hyatt walkway collapse",
"energyRelated": false,
"summary": "A structural failure, not an electricity-generation event.",
"electrocutionDeathsPer100k": 0.3
},
{
"iso": "FRA",
"event": "No profile event in source spreadsheet",
"energyRelated": false,
"summary": "The profile overlay has no energy disaster entry for this country.",
"electrocutionDeathsPer100k": 0.1
}
]Citations
{
"owid-safest-sources": {
"label": "Our World in Data, What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?",
"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy",
"year": 2024
},
"ipcc-ar5-a3": {
"label": "IPCC AR5 WGIII Annex III lifecycle emissions medians",
"url": "https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/",
"year": 2014
},
"unece-2021": {
"label": "UNECE lifecycle assessment of electricity generation options",
"url": "https://unece.org/sed/documents/2021/10/reports/life-cycle-assessment-electricity-generation-options",
"year": 2021
},
"lazard-lcoe": {
"label": "Lazard LCOE+ 2026, version 19.0",
"url": "https://www.lazard.com/research-insights/levelized-cost-of-energyplus-lcoeplus/",
"year": 2026
},
"vanzalk-behrens-2018": {
"label": "Van Zalk & Behrens 2018, spatial extent of energy generation",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.08.056",
"year": 2018
},
"hhs-vsl-2026": {
"label": "US HHS ASPE, Standard Values for Regulatory Analysis, 2026 (value of a statistical life)",
"url": "https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/policy-regulation/regulatory-analysis",
"year": 2026
},
"epa-scc-2023": {
"label": "US EPA, Report on the Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases (2023)",
"url": "https://www.epa.gov/environmental-economics/scghg",
"year": 2023
}
}